koh-ree«-uh
South Korea is a small
country that occupies the southern part of the strategically important Korean
peninsula of the East Asian mainland. The peninsula reaches to within 195 km
(120 mi) of the largest Japanese island, Honshu, to the east. South Korea shares
its only land border with North Korea, with which it was politically united
until the end of World War II. In 1945, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel
of latitude into two separate occupation zones (Soviet in the north and U.S.
in the south). In 1948 these zones became the Communist-controlled Democratic
People's Republic of Korea, otherwise known as North Korea, and the U.S.-supported
Republic of Korea, or South Korea. Both republics seek eventual reunification
of the peninsula through the political overthrow of the other. Seoul is the
capital of South Korea.
Korea has a long history
as a cultural bridge across which Chinese culture was transmitted to Japan and
Japanese influences reached the mainland. Korean culture was greatly enriched
by this contact, but Korea was dominated politically by both China and Japan
for part of its history. Nevertheless, the Koreans have maintained their identity
as a separate and distinct people. The name is derived from Koryo, the dynasty
that ruled the peninsula from 918 to 1392. Following the devastation of the
Korean War (1950Ð53), both nations had to rebuild their economies; South Korea
looked outward, developing a successful export-oriented economy. North Korea,
one of the world's most highly regimented and isolated societies, focused on
economic self-sufficiency.
LAND AND RESOURCES
Korea as a whole occupies
a predominantly mountainous peninsula, about 320 km (200 mi) wide, that extends
southward from the Asian mainland for about 965 km (600 mi). The peninsula is
bordered by the Yellow Sea on the west and the Sea of Japan (which the Koreans
call the East Sea) on the east; the coastline is 8,700 km (5,400 mi) long. The
western and southern coast of South Korea is irregular and dotted with more
than 3,000 islands, most of them small and uninhabited. One large island is
Cheju (Quelpart), a subtropical island located about 120 km (75 mi) to the south
in the Korean Strait.
Only about 20% of
the whole Korean peninsula is occupied by lowlands suitable for settlement and
cultivation, and most of the population are concentrated in small, discontinuous
coastal plains and inland valleys that open onto the western coast. The remaining
80% is too rugged for cultivation. The mountains drop steeply along the east
coast, forming a narrow plain with few good harbors. To the west, the descent
is more gentle and the land opens to the largest and richest agricultural lands.
The T'aebaek Mountains form the backbone of the Korean peninsula, extending
southward from Wonsan in North Korea almost to Pusan on South Korea's southeastern
coast and forming the main watershed. These mountains rise steeply from a narrow
coastal plain along the Sea of Japan. To the south, separating the western lowlands
from the south coast and Pusan's Naktong Valley, is the Sobaek Range, which
extends from northeast to southwest across the southern end of the peninsula
and reaches 1,915 m (6,283 ft) at Mount Chii (Chiri). The highest point in South
Korea is Mount Halla (1,950 m/6,398 ft) on Cheju Island.
Soils
Korea's best agricultural
soils are alluvial and are found in river valleys and coastal plains. Even these,
however, tend to be somewhat infertile and sandy and require heavy fertilizing.
Soils in the mountains are generally thin and suitable only for cultivation
by the slash-and-burn technique.
Climate
The climate of Korea
is both continental and monsoonal, giving the country four distinct seasons.
During the winter, the peninsula is usually swept by cold, dry north and northwest
winds blowing from the interior of the Asian continent. South Korea has milder,
shorter winters than the north, with an average January temperature of 5C (23F) at Seoul.
During the summer, southerly monsoon winds, blowing onshore from the surrounding
seas, predominate. Temperatures in July average 27C (80F) throughout the
peninsula except in mountainous regions. The frost-free period, or growing season,
averages 220 days in the south, making double cropping possible there. Annual
precipitation is heaviest in the south, which receives more than 1,525 mm (60
in). Most precipitation occurs during the summer months.
Drainage, Vegetation, and Animal Life
The rivers of Korea
are short and swift. They are widely used for irrigation and for generation
of hydroelectricity but are of limited value for navigation. The most important
rivers are the Taedong, Han, and Kum in central Korea, and the Naktong in the
southeast.
Coniferous forests,
including pine, fir, larch, and spruce trees, grow extensively in the north
and at higher elevations farther south. Deciduous trees and pine forests predominate
in warmer areas. Such wild animals as wolves, bears, leopards, and tigers are
still found in some sparsely settled northern and peninsular upland areas. Development,
however, has largely eliminated the deer, wild boar, and tigers that once made
Korea's mountains famous as destinations for game hunters.
Resources
Korea is well endowed
with mineral resources, including large deposits of coal, iron ore, copper,
gold, silver, and tungsten. The political division of Korea left most coal and
metals, as well as most of the commercial forests and hydroelectric power resources,
in North Korea. South Korea, on the other hand, possesses the best agricultural
land and a large labor force. It has therefore enjoyed more food sufficiency
than the north.
PEOPLE
Koreans are an ethnically
homogenous Mongoloid people who have shared a common history, language, and
culture since at least the 7th century, when the peninsula was first unified. The official language of both North
and South is Korean (see Korean language), which is believed to have developed
from a Tungusic base thousands of years ago, although many words have been borrowed
from the Chinese and Japanese languages. The Korean alphabet, called hangul,
was developed during the 15th century and is believed to have been the first
phonetic alphabet in East Asia.
The majority of South
Koreans profess Buddhism and Confucianism, the latter of which was Korea's official
religion from the 14th to the early 20th century. About 25% of South Koreans
are Christians. Also important are shamanism (see shaman), a widely practiced
belief in natural spirits, and the strongly nationalistic religion known as
Chundo Kyo (Tonghak before 1905), which was founded in the 19th century and
combines elements of Confucianism, Daoism (Taoism), and Buddhism.
Demography
The population (1998
est.) of South Korea is 46,400,000, and it therefore ranks among the world's
most densely populated nations. The lowlands along the western coast are the
most densely populated areas. Although the overall rate of population growth
has slowed, South Korea is experiencing urban growth. The largest cities are
Seoul, Pusan, Taegu, Inchon (Seoul's port), Kwangju, and Taejon.
Education
Elementary education
is free and compulsory for all students between the ages of 6 and 11, and 100%
of this age group is enrolled in school. More than 75% of all children also
attend secondary school. Opportunities for higher education have been greatly
expanded since 1948; South Korea now ranks third in the world, after the United
States and Canada, in the percentage of young people attending schools of higher
education. Seoul National University (1946) is the leading institution of higher
learning (see Korean universities). Some critics charged that the South Korean
educational system, similar to that of Japan and focused on rote learning and
advancement via scores on standardized examinations, contributed to the economic
downturn of the late 1990s because it discouraged creativity and problem-solving
skills. Educational reform has become a top priority of the South Korean government.
Health care has improved
dramatically since 1948, with a consequent increase in life expectancy at birth.
Traditional medical treatment, using herbs and acupuncture, now complements
Western medicine.
The Arts
Korea's rich artistic
and cultural heritage has been strongly influenced by centuries of close contact
with China. Buddhism dominated Korean life from the 7th to the 12th century
and left countless treasures that include the complex of temples and art works
that can be seen in Kyongju, a city that was the capital of the Silla Kingdom
(57 to 935) and today calls itself a "museum without
walls." Under the Koryo dynasty (918-1392), Korea produced an exquisite
pottery known as celadon (for the green-blue color of the glaze) that is prized
the world over. The Choson dynasty (1392-1910) produced numerous works of art,
literature, music, and folk art that helped Korea evolve an artistic tradition
entirely different from that of China and Japan.
The outside world
has learned to appreciate art through collections at major museums in Japan,
the United States, and Europe. Meanwhile, within Korea, private collectors have
kept much of Korea's art heritage safe during the wars and upheavals of modern
times; these collections are the core of several excellent museums in Seoul.
The South Korean government maintains a national museum and an active program
of support for artists and the preservation of cultural remains. Through a program
that recognizes "intangible cultural properties" it supports artisans
and craftspeople skilled in culturally important techniques, encouraging them
to teach their skills to the younger generation. Certain performers are designated
"living national treasures," and their performances are both popular
and influential as Koreans adapt the old ways to new influences, creating entirely
new forms of expression. (See also Korean art.)
ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
After the Korean War
the South Korean economy was dependent for many years on aid from the international
community, primarily the United States. This dependence was aggravated in the
1950s by government policies that blocked contact with Japan out of resentment
for abuses suffered during the colonial period (1910-45). Under the military
regime of Gen. Park Chung Hee, who seized power in a 1961 coup, South Korea
"normalized" its relations with Japan and accepted Japanese grants,
loans, and investments. In the late 1960s South Korea contributed two army divisions
to the Vietnam War, paid for and equipped by the United States, and also won
lucrative U.S. military construction contracts, generating a "Vietnam boom"
in the South Korean economy. The inflow of funds from these sources financed
a government-orchestrated effort to pull South Korea's economy out of the doldrums.
General Park's Economic Planning Board (EPB) set forth a series of Five Year
Plans whose targets were always met early. The government coordinated the financing
of development projects under South Korea's major conglomerates (called chaebol).
The chaebol prospered by exporting consumer goods overseas, beginning
with textiles and light electronics, then graduating to cars and, finally, to
ships, steel, and computer chips. Though wages were kept low by government policies
that outlawed trade unions, workers also began to enjoy rising standards of
living. After the ordeals of colonialism and war, South Koreans seemed determined
to work their way out of poverty.
By the 1980s, although
political development was still slow and South Korea was in its third decade
of military dictatorship, the economy was growing at annual rates exceeding
10% and the progress was visible everywhereÑfrom tall buildings and luxury cars
to new subway systems and a rising consumer demand for imported luxury goods.
The chaebol, with names like Hyundai, Samsung, LG, and Daewoo, were becoming
world famous as suppliers of good-quality manufactures.
When former opposition
leader Kim Young Sam was elected president in 1993, ending the era of generals-turned-presidents,
he implemented many reforms. His economic reforms involved a certain amount
of deregulation. One unforeseen consequence was overborrowing by the chaebol,
which drew huge amounts from the newly deregulated banks in order to finance
new expansion. To meet the demand, the banks borrowed from Japanese banks and
other offshore sources, vastly increasing South Korea's foreign debt in a relatively
short span of time. When the economic crisis that began in Thailand late in
1997 began to overtake the economies of the Pacific Rim, the South Koreans were
not immune. Within a few weeks the South Korean currency lost half its value,
and it became impossible to pay back the foreign loans. Deadlines came and went,
and South Korea's credit plummeted. Unemployment increased from a rate of 2.1%
in August 1997 to 7.6% by August 1998. With an estimated 8,000 South Koreans
losing their jobs each day, the newly elected government of Kim Dae Jung took
power in early 1998 facing a bleak situation. The International Monetary Fund
(IMF) came to the rescue with a financial bailout package worth $57 billion,
in return for which it demanded disciplinary measures against the banks and
the chaebol. These policies of what the South Koreans called "the
IMF era" were unpopular but necessary. As the pain continued, unemployment
surged even further, and the five largest chaebol agreed to sell off
or transfer nearly half of their subsidiary companies in an effort to improve
their efficiency. It was estimated that the national economy, which had performed
so brilliantly in the growth years, actually shrank by 5% in the first half
of 1998 and by 6.5% during all of that year. The predicted growth rate for 1999
was only 0.5%.
Manufacturing and Power
Manufacturing provides
most of South Korea's exports. Early postwar industrial development focused
on such labor-intensive industries as electronics, footwear, and textile manufacturing.
Rising wages caused the exodus of many such industries to other parts of Asia,
and South Korea now competes with Japan in a variety of high-tech fields, including
electronic equipment, steel, shipbuilding, automobiles, and chemicals. Seoul
is the chief industrial center, followed by Pusan, Ulsan (automobiles, shipbuilding,
petroleum refining), and Yochon (steel, petrochemicals). Many industrial raw
materials must be imported.
After the Korean War,
South Korea began a massive construction effort to develop electrical generating
facilities, including nuclear power stations, which provide more than 40% of
the nation's electricity. In 1995, 163 billion kW h of electricity were produced
(33 times the 1966 output).
Agriculture, Fishing, and Forestry
About 21% of the land
is farmed; agriculture provides about 10% of the national income. Rice is the
principal summer, or wet-season, crop; wheat, barley, corn, potatoes, and sweet
potatoes are the major dry-season crops. South Korea's rice yields, among the
highest in the world, are obtained through heavy use of fertilizers, hybrid
seeds, irrigation, and mechanization, plus a strong system of cooperatives.
The number of people involved in farming increased in 1998 as many of those
who lost their jobs in the cities turned to farming in an effort to gain food
self-sufficiency. Foodstuffs, including meat products, are imported in increasing
quantity. Fish, a traditional part of the Korean diet, are abundant offshore
and in the Sea of Japan. Since the 1950s fish production has increased tremendously,
and South Korea now ranks third (following Japan and China) among Asian fish
producers. Forests cover about 66% of the total land area, but demand greatly
exceeds the yearly wood output. Extensive reforestation efforts have been launched.
Transportation
The principal rail
line connects Seoul, Taejon, Taegu, and Pusan. A second rail line runs from
Seoul to the south and west, and a third serves the east coast. An extensive
network of superhighways and new expressways, such as the one linking Seoul
and Pusan, have led to a decline in the use of rail transportation, but the
expansion of rapid transportation routes into every corner of the country has
promoted higher living standards everywhere and the knitting together of the
nation as never before. South Korean cities have excellent mass transport systems,
including subway networks in Seoul and Pusan.
Trade
The keystone of South
Korea's prosperity is foreign trade, which increased dramatically beginning
in the 1960s. However, South Korean exports now face increasing competition
from other industrialized nations. This fact, plus the financial woes of many
of its neighbors, contributed to a major economic crisis in late 1997, when
several of the nation's leading conglomerates sought bankruptcy protection.
Despite a huge IMF bailout package to help restructure South Korea's ailing
economy, and various measures designed to promote foreign investment, the country's
economic problems have continued.
GOVERNMENT
According to the constitution
of 1987, the sixth since the founding of the Republic in 1948, legislative power
is vested in the mostly popularly elected National Assembly and executive power
in the president. The latter is elected to a single 5-year term. The president
appoints the cabinet, headed by a prime minister. Roh Tae Woo was elected president
in 1987 under the new constitution, which curtailed presidential powers, strengthened
the legislature, and pledged military neutrality in politics after nearly three
decades of military rule. Roh Tae Woo was succeeded as president in February
1993 by Kim Young Sam, who became the first civilian president of South Korea
in more than three decades. In the midst of the economic crisis of 1997 opposition
leader Kim Dae Jung won election to the presidency. When he took office on Feb.
25, 1998, he was forced to confront a formidable combination of tasks: building
democracy while organizing economic recovery. Kim Dae Jung had spent most of
his career opposing military rule and championing human rights. His victory
was seen as a triumph for democracy in South Korea.
Robert B. Hall
Reviewed by Donald N. Clark
Bibliography:
KOREA (NORTH AND SOUTH):
Cumings, B., Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History (1997; repr.
1998); Hwang, E., The Korean Economies (1994); Lee, P. H., et al., eds.,
Sourcebook of Korean Civilization (1996); Macdonald, D. S., The Koreans,
3d ed., rev. by D. N. Clark (1996); Oberdorfer, D., The Two Koreas: A Contemporary
History (1997); Pratt, K., ed., Korea: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary
(1996); Tennant, R., A History of Korea (1996); Thompson, K. W., Korea:
A World in Change (1996); Yang, S. C., The North and South Korean Political
Systems (1994).
SOUTH KOREA: Bedeski, Robert E., The Transformation of South Korea: Reform and Reconstruction in
the Sixth Republic under Roh Tae Woo, 1987Ð1992 (1994); Cotton, J., Politics
and Policy in the New Korean State (1995); Kim, D., Mass Participatory
Economy (1995); Lee, H., The Korean Economy (1996); Nahm, A. C.,
Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Korea (1993); Shapiro, M., The
Shadow in the Sun 1990; Sigur, C. J., ed., Korea's New Challenges and
Kim Young Sam (1993); Turner, J. E., et al., Villages Astir (1993).
Copyright (c) 1999 Grolier Interactive Inc.
and means the origin of all
things in the universe. The red and blue paisleys within the circle
represent eternal duality (heaven-earth, fire-water, good-evil, male-
female, dark-light, life-death). The blue portion of the circle is called
um and represents the negative aspects of this duality; the red portion
of the circle is called yang and represents the positive aspects. Um-
yang is the Korean equivalent of yin-yang.